J. Calvin and his teaching. Calvinist Church. John Calvin John Calvin

genus. July 10, 1509, Noyon, Picardy - d. May 27, 1564, Geneva) - church reformer; wrote "Institutio religionis christianae" (1536), where he developed the system of Christ. faith, which is based on the following principle: the Bible, especially the body of its religious dogmas contained in the Old Testament, is the only source of (Christian) truth. In his teaching (Calvinism), which was initially influenced by anti-scholastic humanism, he proceeded from predestination. The close connection between Calvinism, especially the English Puritanism that developed from it, and modern Western capitalism was pointed out primarily by Max Weber (see also Asceticism). Collection Op. in "Corpus Reformatorum" (59 Bde., 1863-1900).

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CALVIN Jean

(July 10, 1509 - May 27, 1564) - founder of Calvinism, one of the most prominent figures of the Reformation. Genus. in Noyon (France). From 1523 he studied law. fact-those in Orleans and Paris. In 1531, K. wrote his first work, which reflected the ideas he gleaned from communication with humanists, and was strongly influenced by Erasmus of Rotterdam and Luther. In the fall of 1533 K. renounced Catholicism. church and created the first community of followers of his reform ideas. However, he was soon persecuted and left his homeland in 1534. In 1536 in Basel, K. published Ch. his op. "Instructions in the Christian Faith", which was given systematically. presentation of a new doctrine based on the recognition of abs. predestination, which Engels characterized as a religion. expression of the interests of “... the boldest part of the bourgeoisie of that time” (Marx K. and Engels F., Izbr. prod., vol. 2, 1955, p. 94). Having arrived in Geneva in 1536, K. became the head of the reformation. movement and soon began to energetically implement his ideas, demanding strict adherence to religious morals. establishments, to which he gave the Crimea the character of a state. law. K. abolished the magnificent Catholic. cult, introduced strict regulation of societies. and personal life - entertainment, clothing, food, etc., required obligation. church visits services. He developed the “Church Establishments”, which became the basis of the Calvinist church. K. fiercely persecuted dissidents - humanists (Castellio), his former like-minded people who disagreed with his regime (Pierre Hamot, Ami Perrin, etc.). With particular mercilessness, not inferior in cruelty to the Inquisition itself, he attacked the free-thinkers (the execution of J. Gruet in 1547, the burning of M. Servetus in 1553). Op.: Opera selecta, Bd 1–5, M?nch., 1926–36; Unterricht in der christlichen Religion, Neukirchen, 1955. Lit.: Engels F., Development of socialism from utopia to science. Introduction to the English edition, in the book: K. Marx and F. Engels, Izbr. proizv., vol. 2, M., 1955; his, Ludwig Feuerbach and the end of classical German philosophy, ibid.; Vipper R. Yu., The influence of Calvin and Calvinism on the political teachings and movements of the 16th century. Church and State in Geneva of the 16th century in the era of Calvinism, M., 1894; Wendel R., Calvin. Sources et ?volution de sa pens?e religieuse, , 1950; McNeill J. T., The history and character of Calvinism, N. Y., 1954. B. Ramm. Leningrad.

John Calvin, the creator of a new direction in Protestantism, was born in 1509 in the family of the episcopal secretary of the city of Noyon in Northern France.

His father prepared him for a career as a lawyer, sending him for this purpose to study at the then famous Faculty of Law of the University of Bourges.

Along with law, Calvin studied philosophy and joined the humanistic movement.

After completing his studies, Calvin was engaged in teaching and literary activities. He lived for several years in Paris, where, apparently, in 1534, he converted to Protestantism.

He joined the most radical circles of French Protestants, and I further developed their views and ideas in my reformation teaching.

Due to the persecution of Protestants, Calvin emigrated to Germany, and in 1536 he moved to Geneva, which at that time was a refuge for Protestants, especially the French.

In the same year, his main work, “Instruction in the Christian Faith,” was published in Basel. This book, which was subsequently revised and republished several times, contained the main tenets of Calvinism.

Calvin's teaching was pointed, on the one hand, against Catholicism, and on the other, against the currents of the popular reformation, whose representatives he accused of complete atheism and materialism. One of the main tenets of Kalfkn was the doctrine of divine predestination.

In Calvin it received the formulation of the doctrine of absolute predestination. God, Calvan argued, predetermined some people to salvation and bliss in the other world, others to destruction.

The plans of God are unknown to people, and the Ladas are powerless to change them with their actions. Faith in God and a person’s piety do not depend on his will, since, according to the teachings of Calvin, the very desire of a person to perform actions that guarantee his salvation is nothing more than the action in him of the deity who has chosen him to salvation.

People can only guess about the fate prepared for them by how their life on earth develops. If they succeed in their professional activities (that is, in the activities that God has ordained for them), if they are virtuous, pious, hardworking and obedient to the authorities established by God, this serves as an external indicator of God's favor towards them.

A true Calvinist must devote himself entirely to his professional activity, neglect comfort, despise pleasure and extravagance, save every penny and be a thrifty and thrifty manager.

If a person has the opportunity to get a big dona through his professional activity, and he refuses to take advantage of this opportunity, he will commit a sinful act.

These dogmatic provisions of Calvinism reflected in a distorted, fantastic form the real economic and social needs of the emerging young predatory bourgeoisie of the period of primitive accumulation: its admiration for the spontaneous laws of market relations and the power of money, hoarding and the thirst for profit.

Assessing the social significance of Calvin's theory of predestination, F. Engels wrote: “His doctrine of predestination was a religious expression of the fact that in the world of trade and competition, success or bankruptcy does not depend on the activity or skill of individuals, but on circumstances beyond their control. “It is not the will or actions of any individual who determines, but the mercy” of powerful but unknown economic forces. And this was especially true during the economic revolution, when all the old trade routes and trading centers were replaced by new ones, when America and India were discovered, when even the anciently revered economic creed - the value of gold and silver - was shaken and crashed."

Other consequences followed from the theory of predestination. In the light of its provisions, the nobility of origin and class privileges of the feudal class lost their meaning, because they were not the ones who determined pre-election and salvation.

Consequently, the bourgeoisie received religious justification for its rights to a leadership position in the political life of society as its most prosperous part.

Calvinism was at the same time a very flexible ideological form of influencing the masses.

Calvinist preachers inspired the poor that by working hard for their master, leading a pious and humble lifestyle, they would achieve success and earn God's favor.

Continues to develop in Switzerland. Its center moves to French Switzerland - Geneva. Initially, Guillaume Farel becomes the leader of the Genevan Protestants.

Note 1

Guillaume Farel, a supporter of the Reformation, a French Protestant, preached in Switzerland. Years of life 1489-1565.

Since 1532, Farel attracted many supporters with his sermons in Geneva. He is engaged in reform activities, establishes contacts with the Waldenses (supporters of the rejection of private property), and helps Zwingli. In 1536, the Geneva city council decided to introduce reform worship. Farel did not dare to lead it; as he believed, he lacked the abilities.

At this time, John Calvin was passing through Geneva.

Note 2

John Calvin - French Protestant and theologian, supporter of the Reformation. Years of life 1509-1564. The founder of the doctrine named after him is Calvinism.

Farel was familiar with his Instructions in the Christian Spirit and appreciated his organizational capabilities. He persuaded Calvin to stop in Geneva and begin rebuilding the church.

The Teachings of John Calvin

In 1537, Calvin wrote a catechism (a summary of views on the Reformation) and presented it to the city council. The Catechism is accepted unanimously, and the city residents swear allegiance to the new faith. The strict rules cause oppositional protest and the expulsion of Calvin. He leaves for Strasbourg. In 1542, Calvin returned, and in Geneva the Protestant church was established according to his teaching - Calvinism.

Definition 1

Calvinism is one of the Protestant movements, founded by John Calvin. The main components of the doctrine: Presbyterianism, Congregationalism and Reformation.

John Calvin in his theoretical developments went further than the founder of the Reformation, Martin Luther. Luther proposed to “remove from the church everything that contradicts the Bible.” Calvin sought to destroy everything that was not required in the Bible. His main idea was the doctrine: God is sovereign, he has supreme power in everything. Calvin's teaching is characterized by rationalism and denial of mysticism.

According to Calvin's theoretical justifications, nothing depends on a person. He has no right to refuse grace or accept it. Everything happens without his desire, according to the will of God. Since people are divided into true believers and those who refuse to honor God, this means that God has already predetermined their path. Some will save their soul, others will destroy it.

Reforms of John Calvin

Since 1542, the church in Geneva has been established according to the proposals of Calvin. All church ministers were divided into 4 classes:

pastors - conducted sermons and monitored discipline;
teachers - spread the basics of the faith;
deacons - engaged in charitable activities;
presbyters - observed the theology and moral principles of society (they made up the Consistory).

Definition 2

The presbyter is the head of the church community. Presbyterianism denies the need for mediators between God and believers. Only rituals are performed: the pastor’s sermons, prayers and collective singing of psalms.

Each church community was an autonomous conglomeration. Calvinism denied the need for a national church.

To ensure the effectiveness of the reforms, the Calvinists used the state apparatus. Severe punishments began to be carried out on behalf of the state. For example, in 1546, 58 people were executed for non-compliance with the rules of Protestant teaching. In 1553, the famous preacher Miguel Servetus was burned.

Geneva became the new center for the Reformation. From here, Calvinism spread across European countries: to France and Great Britain, to Hungary and Poland, to the Netherlands and Germany.

Ministry of Education of the Republic of Belarus

Educational institution "Vitebsk State University"

named after P.M. Masherov"

History department

Department of General History and World Culture

TEST

in the course "World History"

on the topic of: J. Calvin and his teachings

2nd year students

OZO groups

Record number 20090458

Orlova Tatyana Mikhailovna

I checked the work:

Kosov Alexander Petrovich

Vitebsk, 2011

Introduction

1.John Calvin: his life and teachings

2.The spread of Calvinism in Europe and its consequences

Conclusion

List of used literature

INTRODUCTION

Calvinism is the name of a religious and philosophical system, the generator of fundamental ideas of which was John Calvin. His theological views are a kind of revival of Augustinianism, namely Calvin in the 16th century. most thoroughly systematized them and justified their practical application. Calvinism is not limited to theology, representing a comprehensive system that also includes certain views on politics, society, science and culture and provides a fairly integral worldview.

In recent years, interest in Calvinism has grown noticeably, as evidenced, first of all, by its wide distribution in various regions of the globe. According to Louis Berkhof, author of the preface to the second edition of H. G. Mitter's Fundamental Ideas of Calvinism, "Calvin's teachings are even more important today than in the days of the Reformation." He is echoed by the American Lutheran F. E. Mayer in Concordia Theological Monthly: “Calvinism remains a powerful factor in the theological practice of modern Protestantism.”

Currently, a situation has arisen in which new opportunities have emerged not only for popularizing the ideas of the great Genevan reformer, but also for thoroughly studying them, studying Calvin’s work from various points of view. This will make it possible to give a more complete, and most importantly, more objective picture of the period of formation of the new society. Calvin’s literary heritage remains a unique “legacy” only of Western civilization, for there are sadly few translations of his works and publications of studies devoted to him and Calvinism as a doctrine in general, in Russian and other languages except Western ones.

Based on the above, you can set the goal and objectives of the test: study the life of John Calvin: his teaching, political views, trace the fate of Calvinism in Europe.

When writing the work, the following materials were used: a textbook on the history of the Middle Ages by S.P. Karpov, an encyclopedia of world history, which outlines the history of European countries in early modern times; fragment of the work of John Calvin: “On the Christian Life”; as well as Internet resources.

1. JEAN CALVIN: HIS LIFE AND TEACHINGS

From the mid-1530s. The development of reformation ideas and their implementation in Switzerland turned out to be inextricably linked with the name of John Calvin (1509 - 1564). His teaching had a strong influence on the reform movement in other European countries, primarily in France.

Jean Calvin (Calvin, Calvinus - a Latinized version of the French surname Coven - Cauvin) was born on July 10, 1509 in the city of Noyon, located northeast of Paris, not far from two cities famous for their cathedrals - Amiens and Reims.

His parents, Gerard Coven and Jeanne Lefran, belonged to respected bourgeois families in the province of Picardy, who maintained business relations with the capital of France and the largest Dutch cities - Antwerp and Brussels.

At first it was assumed that Jean would be a clergyman: at the age of 12 he was enrolled in the cathedral clergy of Noyon, awarded a tonsure, and from 1527, as a student at the Sorbonne, he was considered a priest without performing his duties, which was quite common in the church of that time.

In Paris, Jean studied philology and scholastic philosophy under the guidance of teachers who belonged to the religious-renovation movement of the “New Piety”, through whose schools Erasmus of Rotterdam and Luther at one time passed.

Having completed his theological education in 1528, apparently with a Bachelor of Arts degree, Calvin, at the insistence of his father, changed his intention to become a priest and went to the universities of Orleans and Bourges to study law and Greek.

In 1531, he returned to Paris and led the life of a scientist, working on the book “Commentaries on Seneca’s treatise “On Mercy,” published in 1532. At this time, there were active protests against the Roman Catholic Church in Germany and Switzerland, but in In France, the reformation movement developed more slowly: the need to reform Christianity was discussed and written mainly by intellectuals from the university environment, gathering for humanistic interviews and in circles for the study of the Gospel.

Here Calvin showed himself in 1533, when the situation became difficult. In Paris and in a number of French provinces there were open attacks on Catholic relics, and the government of King Francis I, not without reason, blamed these attacks on university professors who were suspected of “Lutheran heresy.”

The rector of the Sorbonne, Nicolas Cope, the son of the personal physician of Francis I, delivered a speech composed with the participation of Calvin. The speech became a reason for persecution. In it he said that in religion the Gospel should take precedence over ritual, and peace in the church would be restored by the divine Word, but not by the sword.

Calvin had to leave Paris, and then France, where he wandered for some time, observing how various “sects” emerged in the provinces, generated by the influence of the ideas of the Reformation. The most radical "sect" were the Anabaptists. Calvin’s first doctrinal work, “On the Sleep of the Soul,” written in 1534, is devoted to criticism of the doctrinal principles of the Anabaptists.

Calvin's life in exile began in Protestant Basel, where he was known as Martin Lucanius. In this pseudonym one can see a manifestation of personal respect for Martin Luther, whom Calvin did not have the opportunity to meet personally. At this time, here in Basel, the days of the great humanist of the Reformation, Erasmus of Rotterdam, were drawing to a close. In this regard, a legend later arose about the meeting of Calvin and Erasmus, which is difficult to refute, but there is nothing to confirm.

In 1536, Calvin accepted Guillaume Farel's invitation to become a preacher in Geneva, and perhaps one explanation is that the influence of French culture was felt more strongly in Geneva than in Basel. Although John Calvin became a “citizen of the world,” the bitter motif of exile from his homeland is often heard in his works.

In the same year, in Basel, he published his main work, “Instruction in the Christian Faith” (Institutiones Religionis Christianae), considered the highest achievement of the theology of the Reformation. If Protestant thought honors Martin Luther as the great prophet of the Reformation, then Calvin is honored as the great creator of the system of Protestant ideas. The “Instruction” still serves as an encyclopedia of the principles of Protestantism, although it was created in the 16th century, when, in the era of the decline of feudal society, Europe was experiencing the mighty rise of Renaissance culture, nations were formed in it, and the once united Roman Catholic Church split into two - Catholic and Protestant.

Central to Calvin's theology are the problems of knowing God as the creator and sovereign ruler of the world, and the mission of Jesus Christ as the redeemer. Calvin gives his understanding of the truly Christian life and the means that are necessary for it. One of the main elements of the teachings of John Calvin was his concept of “double predestination.” He argued that God, even before the creation of the world, in His Wisdom, destined everything that should happen, including each person’s fate: for some - eternal damnation and sorrow, for others, the chosen ones - salvation, eternal bliss. It is impossible for a person to change this sentence or avoid it. He is only able to realize that forces are constantly and powerfully operating in the world that do not depend on the desires of individuals. Purely human ideas about the goodness of God are not suitable here; a person can only understand with trepidation that the reasons for God’s condemnation are incomprehensible to him. Another thing is open to him - to believe in his chosenness and pray, humbly preparing to accept any will of God. He should not doubt his own chosenness, because such concern in itself is a “satanic temptation”, a symptom of insufficient faith in God.

This part of Calvin’s doctrine was finally formulated in its developed form by Calvin’s successors and followers and was called the doctrine of “secular vocation” and “secular asceticism.” A true Calvinist must devote himself entirely to his professional activity, neglect comfort, despise pleasure and extravagance, save every penny and be a thrifty and thrifty manager. If a person has the opportunity to earn a large income through his professional activity, and he refuses to take advantage of this opportunity, he will commit a sinful act.

Assessing the social significance of Calvin’s theory of predestination, F. Engels wrote: “His doctrine of predestination was a religious expression of the fact that in the world of trade and competition, success or bankruptcy does not depend on the activity or skill of individuals, but on circumstances beyond their control. “It is not the will or actions of any individual who determines, but the mercy” of powerful but unknown economic forces. And this was especially true during the economic revolution, when all the old trade routes and trade centers were replaced by new ones, when America and India were discovered, when even the anciently revered economic creed - the value of gold and silver - was shaken and crashed" [cit. from: 1, p. 200].

Realizing the unspeakable greatness and glory of the Lord, as well as his own smallness, a person must act firmly and decisively in this world with all his energy, following the commandments and instructions of the Holy Scripture. He must realize with maximum fullness his “calling” - the talents and opportunities placed in him by God, which are manifested in all his activities. God himself, as it were, gives a person a guideline, testifying to his support, that the person correctly understood his “calling” and is on the right path fulfilling it - this is the success or failure of his business. Calvin uses the terms “prosperity” and “trouble” here. God blesses luck, but it must be achieved only in an honest and legal way, not forgetting about duty both to God and to one’s neighbors. “Prosperity” and “trouble” are tests of a person’s humility and moral fiber. “Prosperity,” for example, leads to the accumulation of wealth (Calvin does not condemn hoarding per se), but this gift of God cannot be acquired “at the cost of the blood and sweat of other people,” that is, by violating the commandment “thou shalt not steal.” Already having wealth, you cannot squander it, satisfying your whims, but you should give from your abundance to the needs of others. The poor man, in turn, must endure his trials with fortitude and patience.

In general, the religious and moral principles of Calvin’s teachings affirm and stimulate the high activity of the individual, his sober and rational approach to business, strong-willed pressure in decisions, concern for the success of the business while being ascetic about his own desires - and all this with a firm confidence in his chosenness that defies logical explanation By God. John Calvin's teaching on salvation and piety, which included ethical standards of work and ideas about moderate asceticism in secular life, was aimed at developing internal discipline, composure, and fighting qualities in a person.

The church cult, according to the teachings of Calvin, demanded rigor and simplicity. The worship of saints, relics, relics, and icons was rejected. Altars, crucifixes, candles, rich vestments and decorations were removed from Calvinist churches, and organ music stopped. Nothing should distract from concentrated prayer. In the church service, the main attention was paid to the sermon and the singing of psalms.

For the stability of the Calvinist tradition, there was a new church structure created by Calvin, which was fundamentally different from the system of the Catholic hierarchy. The "Visible Church" consisted of communities in which the principle of self-government operated. Community leaders were elected and controlled by its members. There were four types of “offices”: pastors to preach, doctors (teachers) to maintain the purity of doctrine, presbyters (elders) to oversee church discipline, and deacons to oversee church property, collect donations, and care for the poor. The affairs of the community were discussed by its leadership at the council of elders - consistories, dogmatic issues - at congregations, meetings of spiritual mentors.

In accordance with the teachings of Calvin, much attention was paid to the authority of spiritual shepherds and church discipline, which did not exclude the most severe measures of influence on its violators. The community of believers had to be firmly educated and at the same time resolutely protected from sins and temptations.

The acute socio-political struggle of the oppressed masses in Germany, its echoes in Switzerland, the experience of Zwingli and Luther showed Calvin how dangerous it is to appeal without any reservations to the Gospel and the ideas of early Christianity, which the oppressed masses understood and interpreted in their own way, seeing in them justification to your requirements. Therefore, Calvin approached the interpretation of the problems of the state and the socio-political structure of society very carefully.

Calvin condemned princes, monarchs and feudal lords for their violence and arbitrariness. He argued that if the sovereign and the government establish a tyrannical regime, trample on divine laws and insult the church, then sooner or later they will experience the punishing right hand of God, the instrument of which can be their own subjects. But at the same time, Calvin declared every state structure and power, including the feudal absolute monarchy, to be divine. He recognized the right of resistance to tyranny only for subordinate authorities, the church and representative institutions, for example the Estates General. In this case, legal forms of struggle and passive resistance must first be exhausted; Only in exceptional cases is open disobedience and the overthrow of tyranny permissible.

Calvin considered democracy “the worst form of government.” He gave all his sympathies to the aristocratic form of government, that is, essentially an oligarchy. As a compromise solution, he allowed its combination with “moderate democracy.”

In accordance with these views of Calvin, power in Geneva was increasingly concentrated in the hands of a narrow group of individuals. When Calvinism entered the wide pan-European arena and became the ideological banner of the early bourgeois revolutions, the question of the nature of political and church organization was resolved differently, depending on the specific alignment of class forces and local conditions.

Calvin cruelly hated and persecuted the peasant-plebeian heresy - Anabaptism. He assessed the demand of extreme Anabaptists to establish a community of property and their denial of the authorities as “appropriation of someone else’s property” and “outrageous savagery.”

At the same time, Calvin justified the charging of interest and usury, and considered the existence of the most cruel form of exploitation of man by man - slavery, which began to be increasingly used in the colonies, to be natural.

Calvinism thus developed into a harmonious and consistent system of views of the bourgeoisie of the era of primitive accumulation.

A consistory was created in Geneva, which actually subjugated secular power and established meticulous police supervision over the behavior and life of the townspeople.

This was the time of Calvin's greatest power, when both the Genevan church and the magistrate completely bowed to his authority.

The Calvinist consistory was just as intolerant as the Catholic Church, and treated any manifestation of dissent, especially if there was opposition from the masses (in particular, Anabaptism). It was not for nothing that Geneva was known as Protestant Rome, and Calvin was often called the Pope of Geneva. Anabaptists were either expelled from the city or executed. In 1553, Calvin personally achieved the arrest and conviction of the major Spanish humanist scientist Servetus, a naturalist and anatomist who happened to be in Geneva, who came close to the discovery of blood circulation. Servetus “dared” to criticize Calvinist dogmas in his books and maintained contact with the Anabaptists. The burning of Servetus, which caused discontent in the circles of educated society, prompted Calvin to publish a special treatise, where he “justified” the right of the church to exterminate apostates. “God,” Calvin declared, “does not spare entire nations; he orders to destroy cities to the ground and destroy their traces; Moreover, he orders that the trophies of victory be placed as a sign of a curse, so that the infection does not spread to the rest of the earth.”

The history of Geneva under Calvin emphasizes the fact of a significant change in the moral standards of the urban community. Novelists eagerly depicted the transformation of an almost free feudal city into a sad fiefdom of the captious “Geneva pope,” but for many contemporaries Geneva served as “the best school of Jesus Christ that has ever been found on earth since apostolic times” (J. Knox) [cit. from: 3, p. 4].

2. THE SPREAD OF CALVINISM IN EUROPE AND ITS CONSEQUENCES

The new understanding of religion was supposed to cover, in the opinion of the leaders of Protestantism, the population of all European countries. It was necessary to adopt clear and distinct organizational forms, to move from the initial ideas about the invisible church to visible churches. This was achieved first of all and best of all in those conditions by Calvinism as the Roman type of the Reformation, and, therefore, being closer in spirit to the worldview and worldview of the majority of Europeans.

Calvinism turned out to be prepared to solve such problems thanks to a number of its features and differences from other Protestant churches:

he was more strongly opposed to Catholicism than the rest of the original Protestant creeds;

it largely revived such features of the early Christian period as opposition to any dissent, the unconditional subordination of individuals to the community and an almost ascetic ideal of morality;

no Protestant movement has ever insisted so sharply on the unconditional and exclusive authority of the Bible;

Calvin and his followers, more decisively than other leaders of the Reformation, expelled superstition and paganism from the cult and teaching, that is, all kinds of external symbols, pomp of cult, etc.;

the special desire to restore the early Christian community met with quite a lot of support from the broad masses, due to which sympathies and hopes for Calvinism were noted already at an early stage of its history in almost all of Europe;

at the same time, in Calvinist communities their leaders, pastors and elders, enjoyed greater authority than in other Protestant churches. This strengthened the new movement organizationally;

individual communities united among themselves into unions with a common elective government (presbyterial and synodal structure);

Calvinism turned out to be very closely connected with political movements, which was due to the formation and development of national states at that time and the sharp rise of the central government, which actively used for its own purposes any teachings opposed to the Catholic Church.

16th century Calvinist represented a practically established type of new person who could become an ideal for new churches: confident in the correctness of his teaching, hostile to secular life, focused on prayer and spiritual activity.

Geneva remains the center of Calvinism, but the doctrine itself is widely spread throughout Europe, although its fate in different countries is ambiguous. While Lutheranism was conquering Scandinavia, Calvinism found its followers in the Rhine Valley of Germany, in France, the Netherlands, Scotland, Northern Ireland, Hungary, Moravia, and even for a time in Poland. It became a buffer between the Lutheran north and the Catholic south.

In the homeland of the Reformation, in Germany, Calvinism was not widespread. There were few Calvinists and they were at enmity with the Lutherans. The enmity was so strong that there was a saying among Lutherans that papists were better than Calvinists. Those who were better off financially turned to Calvinism first of all.

Calvinism took hold in the Palatinate (Palatinate), whose ruler, Elector Frederick III, supported Calvinist theology and Presbyterian government of the church. After the debate of 1560, he finally leaned towards Calvinism.

During the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648), hostility towards Calvinists on the part of German reformers continued. Lutherans did not support the union concluded by the Calvinist princes in 1609. The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 extended the principle of tolerance to the Calvinists. In the 17th century Calvinism was accepted by the powerful Elector of Brandenburg, which contributed to some spread of this doctrine in the territory of the German principalities.

In the Netherlands, Calvinism began to spread quite early and widely. Lutheran ideas were dealt a serious blow here by Emperor Charles V in the 50s. Calvinism began to spread, at first among the lower strata of the city. From the very beginning it takes the form of an oppositional movement. By 1560, the majority of Protestants were Calvinists, and the minority were Anabaptists, led by Menno Simons, and some followed M. Luther. Calvinist sermons attracted crowds of thousands; if government officials made arrests, those arrested were released by force. Since 1566, the iconoclastic movement developed.

In 1571, the National Council of Edmond adopted the Presbyterian Calvinist system of church government. However, here among Protestants, Calvinism had a theological opponent - Arminianism. The followers of Jacob Arminius, in contrast to Calvin's teaching about the predestination of the fate of every person, developed their 5 articles of “Remonstration”.

Their essence boiled down to the following:

a person’s choice to salvation is predetermined by faith, condemnation is predetermined by unbelief;

the choice to salvation belongs to everyone, and in such a way that no one receives forgiveness except those who believe;

faith comes not from man, but from God;

grace does not act irresistibly;

it remains undecided whether grace is irresistible.

Dutch Calvinists contrasted these articles with their 5 canons of orthodox Calvinism:

the complete depravity of man, that is, man cannot do anything to save himself;

unconditional choice, that is, a person is chosen by God without any grounds or conditions;

limited atonement, that is, Christ died only for the elect, and not for all people;

irresistible grace, that is, if a person is chosen for salvation, he cannot resist the Holy Spirit;

eternal security, that is, once saved, saved forever and can never be abandoned by God.

Subsequently, these canons became the basis of all forms of Calvinism and were adopted in French, English, Swiss and other Reformed churches. It should also be noted that Arminians, like Calvinists, believed in the complete depravity of man by sin and the impossibility of man’s salvation without the action of God’s grace. With the development of the theology of Protestantism, new movements emerged, some of which accepted the five main canons of orthodox Calvinism. Currently, it is professed by numerous Reformed and Presbyterian churches in Western Europe and America. The five main canons of Calvinism are also professed by most Baptists.

Calvinism had its greatest success in the south and southwest of France and in Navarre, neighboring France. King Antoine Bourbon of Navarre became one of the leaders of the Huguenot party (Protestants in France began to be called Huguenots after the name of one of their leaders, Besançon Hugues). The nobility especially readily accepted Calvinism, among whom purely religious aspirations were intertwined with political goals and social ideals. Calvinist ideas were defined as a convenient means for returning to the feudal nobility the political rights and privileges they had lost over the previous century.

In the 50s of the 16th century. Calvinism begins to spread in Scotland. During the regency of Mary of Guise, who ruled under her infant daughter Mary Stuart, political opposition against the Stuart dynasty formed among the nobility. These groups begin to actively use Calvinist ideas and principles of organizing the Calvinist community. From the very beginning, John Knox becomes the leader of the Protestants. In his sermons he mercilessly castigated the idolatry of the royal court. John Knox and the Scottish Calvinists paid great attention to various socio-political issues. He expressed the idea of the people's will as a source of civil power, substantiated the need to limit the powers of the monarch and the legitimacy of resistance to tyranny. His ideas would have a great influence on the radical sections of the English Puritans.

In 1560, by decree of parliament, the secularization of church lands was carried out, most of which went to the nobility. Six Johns (Knox and five other men named John) in one week compiled the so-called Scottish Confession of Faith, which remained the main Scottish confession until the adoption of the Westminster Confession in 1647. Later, the first Book of Instructions was compiled and in 1561. General book. As a result, Calvinism was introduced into Scotland under the name of the Presbyterian Church. The new church had a synodal organization. The priests in it were elected, but not by the people directly, but by church councils and enjoyed great authority.

In England, Calvinism spreads after the Reformation. As a result, he is in opposition not to Catholicism, but to the official Protestant Anglican Church. The Church of England, created under Edward VI and Elizabeth, had a number of features in common with Catholicism. Calvinists demanded further cleansing of the church from superstition and idolatry. Soon they will receive the name Puritans (from the Latin purus - pure, puritas - purity). The official church began to call them nonconformists, because they rejected the uniformity of doctrine and cult, or dissenters (dissenting, from the English dissent - disagreement, difference of views). This flow was not uniform. The most moderate Puritans were ready to accept the supremacy of the king in the church, but rejected episcopacy and the remnants of Catholicism in the cult. Another group was close in its views to the Scottish Calvinists and advocated a republican-aristocratic organization of Presbyterianism led by a national synod.

The Puritans actively fought against royal supremacy in church affairs and absolutism in the state. The severity of this struggle and persecution by the authorities forced many Puritans to move to America. In England itself, Puritanism gradually disintegrates into various sects and groups and loses its influence.

The beginning of the spread of Calvinism on the territory of Ukraine dates back to the early 40s of the 16th century and is associated with the activities of famous cultural figures, writers, scientists, and politicians who were passionate about Protestant ideas. The first advocates of religious reforms were the most educated people, who were invited by wealthy individuals to educate their children and develop the scientific and educational process in the country. Of the first preachers who acted in Ukraine as cultural figures, translators, writers, information has been preserved about Foma Falkovsky, Pavel Zenovich, Nikolai Zhitny, Alexander Vitrelin. In Ukraine, Calvinism spread throughout the entire territory from Volyn and Galicia to Podolia and the Kiev region, but the meetings themselves, as well as schools and printing houses, were concentrated mainly in Western Ukraine. In 1554, the first synod took place, which united the Calvinist communities of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. In 1562, in the Nesvizh printing house of the Radzivilov princes, the Calvinist catechism, compiled by Symon Budny, was first printed in Russian. In the 60s of the 16th century there were about 300 Reformed communities in Ukraine.

It should be noted that the spread of Calvinism in Ukraine is closely related to its spread in Poland and Belarus due to the affiliation of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The influence of Calvinists in the Polish Sejm was also significant as a result of the high gentry belonging to Calvinism. In general, thanks to the efforts of Prince Nicholas Radzivil the Black, who was the Chancellor of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Calvinism became dominant for a certain time among the magnates and gentry of the principality, which at that time also covered a significant part of the Ukrainian lands.

The spread of Calvinism in Europe resulted in the appearance of its various varieties, the features of which depended on the specific circumstances of place and time. Calvinist theory and practice sometimes deviated quite strongly from Calvin. The diversity of Calvinism while preserving its fundamental principles was not something unusual: the existence of various movements turned out to be characteristic of other major movements of the Reformation, including Lutheranism.

CONCLUSION

John Calvin, for all the contradictory nature of his nature, was a typical representative of his era. Yes, and this is a fact, Calvin is a genius. Hundreds and thousands of people all over the world followed his genius. His ideas, according to many researchers, were the ideology of the bourgeoisie emerging at that time. Max Weber shares the same opinion. In his work “The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism” he wrote:

“The fundamental feature of Calvinist piety is that every Christian must be a monk throughout his life. The transfer of asceticism from worldly everyday life to monasteries was blocked, and those deeply partial natures, who until then had become the best representatives of monasticism, were now forced to implement ascetic ideals within the framework of their worldly professional activities.

Thus, we can say with confidence that Calvinism gave wide layers of religious people a positive incentive to asceticism, and the justification of Calvinist ethics by the doctrine of predestination led to the fact that the spiritual aristocracy of monks outside the world and above it was supplanted by the spiritual aristocracy of saints in the world.

Many may speak of Calvin only in a negative context and even consider him a tyrant.

But if Calvin seems harsh, and his mode of government in Geneva - tyrannical, then the main reason for this must be sought in the cruelty - always decisive and malicious - with which the adherents of the old order defend their interests. Having defeated his enemy, no one will want him to come to life again out of personal mercy. Revolutions, after their first victories, still do not feel safe and need to maintain the same strict measures and order that ensured victory. Failure of the rank and file to observe established discipline still seems as dangerous to the cause (and to some extent this is true) as during the struggle itself. Generally speaking, everything disgusting in this kind of matter is generated by the presence of a crisis, and a crisis can be defined as an extremely tense state of social conflict, when any human act can become a matter of life or death.

In the life of John Calvin there were many such contradictory facts that could be interpreted in two ways. But, nevertheless, it is impossible not to appreciate his contribution to world history, reformation, and the formation of the human worldview.

Calvinism religious philosophical orthodox

List of used literature

1.World history: in 10 volumes. Vol.4. / ed. MM. Smirina, I.Ya. Zlatkina [and others]. M.: Publishing house of socio-economic literature, 1958. - 822 p.

2. History of the Middle Ages: in 2 volumes. T. 2: Early modern times: textbook / ed. S.P. Karpova. - 5th ed. - M.: Publishing house Mosk. University: Nauka, 2005. - 432 p.

3. Calvin J. On Christian life: a fragment of the work of John Calvin / translation from French, introduction, notes by Doctor of Historical Sciences N.V. Revunenkova; edited by A. D. Bakulova. - Moscow: Protestant, 1995.

4. Reshetnikova T. // Calvinism. - 2010. - access mode Access date: 04/05/2011

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Access mode: http://www.koob.ru (Weber M. Protestant ethics and the spirit of capitalism: Selected works: translated from German / compiled, general ed. and afterword by Yu. N. Davydov. - M. : Progress, 1990. - 808 p. - (Sociological thought of the West)) access date: 04/06/2011

Access mode: Access date: 04/05/2011

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He was even more tolerant and bore more traces of the influence of humanism than under the third reformer Calvin. The Lutheran and Zwinglian Reformation originated in the Germanic tribe and almost never left its confines, but the Calvinistic reformation took place in the Romanesque tribe and spread among various other nations. In time it was much later than the reformation of Luther and Zwingli.

Portrait of John Calvin

was a Frenchman by birth and twenty-five years younger than Luther and Zwingli. A dry and callous man, who earned the nickname Accusativus [“Accuser”] from his schoolmates, he received a legal education. If Luther was a scholastic by upbringing, and Zwingli was a humanist, then Calvin was, first of all, lawyer. From the study of Roman law, with its precise and clear formulas and its strict systematicity, he developed his own logic, distinguished by its inexorable consistency. Luther and Zwingli expressed a lot in the heat of argument, often contradicting themselves or directly changing their opinions, and Calvin, who found the main provisions of the new doctrine already ready, built a coherent system out of them. Feeling unsafe in his homeland after converting to Protestantism, he moved to Geneva, where he lived with a short break for about twenty-five years, becoming, as it were, a dictator in this city.

"Instruction in the Christian Faith" by Calvin. Geneva edition 1559

In his reform, Calvin continued the work of Zwingli, also giving the church he founded a republican structure. He began his career with a systematic exposition of Protestantism, writing in 1536 the famous “Instruction in the Christian Religion.” Calvin accepted Luther's teaching that a person is justified before God not by his own merits, but by faith, and that this faith is a special gift of God's mercy. And faith, Calvin taught, does not depend on man himself: otherwise his salvation would depend on man, which would only be a limitation of the omnipotence of God.

Luther already denied the free will of man (by the way, in a polemic with Erasmus, who stood for free will), but only Calvin drew his final conclusions from the doctrine of predestination. In his view, God from the beginning and completely independently of the future behavior of people predetermines some to eternal bliss, others to eternal torment. Only the “elect” alone constitute the true church, but since during life no one knows what he is predestined to, then everyone must belong to the visible church and behave as the law of God requires, in order to be worthy of the grace of God, in the event of pre-election to salvation. Calvin's doctrine of the Eucharist also stands in close connection with the dogma of predestination; in the sacrament grace is imparted, but only to the “elect.”

Reformers of Geneva: Guillaume Farel, John Calvin, Theodore Beza, John Knox. "Wall of Reformers" in Geneva

The true followers of Calvin were all are internally convinced of their chosenness and applied to themselves the biblical instructions about the people of God, called to destroy the atheists. (However, sectarians also had this trait). Hence their unyielding pride, strict morals and inexorable severity towards sinners and people who did not share their views. With the help of his supporters, Calvin turned Geneva into a kind of monastery. The reformer also condemned the sectarians, declaring that God had revealed his will once and for all in the Holy Scriptures, and condemned secular humanism, recognizing that “the ignorance of the believer is better than the pride of the knower.” Calvin managed (according to the Zurich agreement) to unite the church he founded with the Zwinglian into one, which began to be called Reformed. In the middle of the 16th century. he took the position of the main representative of the Reformation (“Geneva Pope”), and Geneva became a kind of “Protestant Rome.” Those persecuted for their faith flocked here from different places, and preachers of the Reformation went to other countries from here. Calvinism from Switzerland spread to France and Germany, England and Scotland, Holland, Hungary, Poland and Lithuania.